201

Further Reading

Coughlan AR, Miller A (eds) (1998).

BSAVA Manual of Small Animal Fracture

Repair and Management. British Small

Animal Veterinary Association.

ISBN 978-0905214375.

De Domenico G (2007). Beard’s Massage – Principles and Practice of Soft Tissue Manipulation. WB Saunders/Elsevier, 5th edn.

ISBN 978-0721603506.

Fischer MS, Lilje KE (2011). Dogs in Motion. VDH Service GmbH und Franckh-Kosmos Verlags-GmbH & Co. ISBN 978-3981433906.

Hodges PW, Richardson CA (1996). Inefficient muscular stabilization of the lumbar spine associated with low back pain. Spine 21: 2640–50.

Myers TW (2008). Anatomy Trains. Myofascial Meridians for Manual and Movement Therapists, 2nd edn. Churchill Livingstone.

ISBN 978-0443102837.

Robertson J (2010). The Complete Dog

Massage Manual. Veloce Publishing Ltd.

ISBN 978-1845843229.

Robertson J, Pope E (2011). Exercising

Your Puppy: a Natural and Gentle

Approach. Veloce Publishing Ltd.

ISBN 978-1845843229.

Robertson J, Pope E (2012). From Tongue to Tail: the Integrated Movement of the Dog (DVD). Parkes Publication.

Whalen-Shaw PW (2000). Canine

Massage – The Workbook. Bookmasters

Inc.

ISBN 978-1930511026.

Wyche S (2002). The Horse’s Muscles in

Motion. Crowood Press.

ISBN 978-1861264565.

202

Appendix

The muscles of the dog – their placement and actions

Extrinsic muscles of the thoracic limb

Muscle	Origin	Insertion	Innervation	Action
Trapezius	Dorsal median	Cervical part –	Dorsal branch of	Cervical part –
(Protractor and	raphe (seam) of	dorsal two-thirds	accessory nerve	draws scapula
retractor of	the neck and the	of the scapula	(XI)	craniodorsally
scapula)	supraspinous	spine		Thoracic part –
(204, 210)	ligament from	Thoracic part –		draws scapula
	the level of the	dorsal third of		caudodorsally
	3rd cervical	the scapula		Cervical &
	vertebrae to the	spine		thoracic parts
	level of the			acting together
	spinous			– draw scapula
	processes of the			dorsally
	9th/10th
	vertebrae
Omo-	Acromion of	Wing of atlas	Ventral branch	Draws scapula
transversarius	scapula	(cranially)	of 4th cervical	and thoracic
(Lateral flexor	(caudally)		nerve	limb forwards
of neck, aids				Flexes neck
protraction of				laterally
thoracic limb)
(204, 207)
Rhomboideus	Rhomboideus	Capitis – cranial	Ventral branches	Elevates and
(Thoracic limb	capitis – nuchal	dorsal border of	of cervical and	retracts thoracic
stabilizer and	crest of the	scapula	thoracic spinal	limb
elevator of	occipital bone	Cervicis – caudal	nn.	Draws scapula
scapula)	Rhomboideus	(base) of	.	against trunk
(205, 208, 219)	cervicis – dorsal	scapula,		When neck is
	median raphe of	medially and		lowered,
	the neck from	laterally		elevates neck
	the 2nd cervical	Thoracis –
	to 1st thoracic	caudal (base) of
	vertebra	scapula,
	Rhomboideus	medially and
	thoracis –	laterally
	spinous
	processes of the
	first seven
	thoracic
	vertebrae
				(continues)

Appendix

Extrinsic muscles of the thoracic limb (continued)

Muscle	Origin	Insertion	Innervation	Action
Serratus	Serratus cervicis	Dorsomedial	Ventral rami of	Most important
Ventralis	– transverse	third of the	cervical spinal	muscle
(Supports trunk	processes of the	serrated surface	nn. and long	supporting the
and	last five cervical	of scapula	thoracic nerve	trunk
thoracic limb)	vertebrae			Carries trunk
(209, 219)	Serratus thoracis			and shoulder
	– first seven or			forward and
	eight ribs ventral			back
	to their midline			Depresses
				scapula
Sternohyoideus	Manubrium of	Basihyoideum	Ventral branch	Draws the
	sternum		of first cervical	tongue caudally
			nerve	(when
				hypertonic
				could have
				negative
				influence on
				balance)
Brachiocephalicus	Cleidobrachialis	Cleidobrachialis	Accessory nerve	Cleidobrachialis
(Prime shoulder	– ventral aspect	– distal third,	and ventral	– extends
extensor)	of clavicular	cranial surface of	branches of	shoulder joint
(204, 206)	intersection	humerus	cervical spinal	and advances
	Cleidocephalicus	Cleidocephalicus	nn.	thoracic limb
	– dorsal aspect	cervical part –		Cleidocephalicus
	of clavicular	cranial half, mid		– draws head to
	intersection	dorsal fibrous		the side and
		raphe and		extends neck
		occasionally to
		nuchal crest of
		occipital bone
		Cleidomastoideus
		– mastoid part
		of temporal
		bone
Latissimus dorsi	Thoracolumbar	Teres major	Thoracodorsal	Prime flexor of
(Prime shoulder	fascia from	tuberosity of	nerve	shoulder joint
flexor)	spinous	humerus and		When limb is
(204, 215, 219)	processes of	teres major		fixed – draws
	most caudal	tendon		the trunk
	seven or eight			cranially
	thoracic			When limb is
	vertebrae and			free − draws
	lumbar			the limb
	vertebrae; most			caudally
	caudal to or four
	ribs

(continues)

204 Appendix

Extrinsic muscles of the thoracic limb (continued)

Muscle	Origin	Insertion	Innervation	Action
Superficial	Transverse	All but the most	Cranial pectoral	Adducts limb
pectoral	portion – the	distal part of the	nerve	when non
(Thoracic limb	first two or	crest of the		weightbearing
adductor)	three sternabrae	greater tubercle		Prevents limb
(218)	Descending	of the humerus		from abducting
	portion -			when
	manubrium			weightbearing
Deep pectoral	Manubrium of	Major portion –	Caudal pectoral	Adducts the
(Thoracic limb	sternum and the	partly muscular,	nerve	limb when limb
adductor and	fibrous raphe	partly tendinous		advanced and
retractor)	between fellow	on the lesser		fixed − pulls
(218)	muscles	tubercle of the		trunk cranially
	The deep	humerus		and to extend
	abdominal	Also via an		the shoulder
	fascia in the	aponeurosis to		joint
	region of the	the greater		When limb non
	xiphoid cartilage	tubercle and its		weight bearing
	(the caudal end	crest		– draws limb
	of the sternum)	Lesser portion –		caudally and
		medial brachial		flexes shoulder
		fascia		joint

Appendix 205

Intrinsic muscles of thoracic limb

Muscle	Origin	Insertion	Innervation	Action
Deltoideus	Spinous head –	Deltoid	Axillary nerve	Spinous head –
(Shoulder	scapular spine,	tuberosity of the		flexes shoulder
abduction	blending	humerus		Acromial head
Aids thoracic	with the			– abducts
limb flexion)	infraspinatus			shoulder
(204, 217)
Supraspinatus	Acromial head –	Cranially on the	Suprascapular	Extends shoulder
(Shoulder	acromion	greater tubercle	nerve	Stabilizes and
extensor and	Supraspinous	of the humerus		prevents
stabilizer)	fossa of scapula	by means of a		dislocation
(216, 219, 221)		thick tendon		of shoulder
Infraspinatus	Infraspinous	Lateral side of	Suprascapular	Flexes shoulder
(Shoulder	fossa and spine	greater tubercle	nerve	Abducts
flexor)	of scapula	of humerus		shoulder
(216, 219, 221)				Stabilizes
				shoulder
Coracobrachialis	Coracoid	Caudomedial	Musculo-	Extends shoulder
(Shoulder extensor	process of	area of proximal	cutaneous nerve	Adducts
and adductor)	scapula	humerus		shoulder
(216, 219)				Stabilizes
				shoulder joint
Triceps brachii	Long head –	Olecranon	Radial nerve	Extends elbow
(Shoulder flexor	caudal border of	process		joint
and elbow	scapula			Helps tense
extensor)	Lateral head –			antebrachial
(204, 214, 219)	tricipital line of			fascia
	humerus			Long head –
	Accessory			flexes shoulder
	head – caudal			joint
	neck of humerus
	Medial head –
	crest of lesser
	tubercle near
	the teres major
	tuberosity of
	humerus
Biceps brachii	Supraglenoid	Radial	Musculo-	Flexes elbow
(Shoulder	tubercle of	tuberosity,	cutaneous nerve	Extends
extensor and	scapula	proximomedial		shoulder
elbow flexor)		ulna		Some passive
(212, 219)				stability when
				weightbearing,
				preventing
				shoulder flexion
Brachialis	Proximal third,	Ulnar and radial	Musculo-	Flexes elbow
(Elbow flexor)	lateral surface of	tuberosities	cutaneous nerve
(211, 212)	humerus

(continues)

206Appendix

Intrinsic muscles of thoracic limb (continued)

EPAXIAL MUSCLES (220, 221)

This group of dorsal vertebral and costal muscles are divided into three individual muscle groups lying in parallel, each overlapping. It is almost impossible to give exact insertions and origins, due to the many overlapping fascicles

Extensors of the vertebral column dorsally, and, when unilaterally contracted, laterally Deep and medial:

Transversospinalis system: spinalis, semispinalis, multifidus, rotators, interspinalis, and interansversarius (complex that joins vertebrae − both those adjacent and slightly distal) Intermediate portion:

Longissimus capitis – origin T1–3; insertion: mastoid part of temporal bone (passing over atlas)

Longissimus cervicis − lying in an overlapping style in the angle of the cervical and thoracic vertebrae and inserting on the transverse processes of C4–7

Longissimus thoracis and longissimus lumborum − originate from crest of ilium via aponeurosis to spinous processes of lumbar and thoracic vertebrae

The most ventrally situated of the group:

Iliocostalis thoracis – origin transverse process of C7–C12

Iliocostalis lumborum – origin wing of ilium and then on the transverse processes of lumbar vertebrae and the last four to five costals

Muscles of the head and neck

Muscle	Origin	Insertion	Innervation	Action
Masseter	Zygomatic arch	Masseteric fossa	Mandibular	Raises the
(204)		of mandible	nerve (branch of	mandible
			the trigeminal	(closes the jaw)
			nerve)
Sternocephalicus	Manubrium	Mastoid part of	Accessory nerve	Draws head
(204)		temporal bone	and ventral	and neck to the
		and nuchal crest	branches of	side
		of occipital bone	cervical spinal
			nerve
Splenius	Cranial border	Nuchal crest and	Dorsal branch of	Extension and
(206, 220, 221)	of	mastoid part of	cervical and	lateral flexion of
	thoracolumbar	temporal bone	thoracic nerve.	head and neck
	fascia Spines of
	first three
	thoracic
	vertebrae
	Entire median
	raphe of neck

Appendix 207

Muscles of the pelvic limb: caudal thigh muscles (hamstrings)

Muscle	Origin	Insertion	Innervation	Action
Biceps femoris	Sacrotuberous	Patellar	Sciatic nerve	Extends hip,
(Hip, stifle and	ligament and	ligament and	Cranial part	stifle, and tarsus
tarsus extensor	ischiatic	cranial border of	receives	Caudal part of
Stifle flexor	tuberosity	tibia via fascia	additional	muscle flexes
Pelvic limb		lata and crural	stimulation from	the stifle
retractor)		fascia	the caudal	Retracts pelvic
(222)		Tibial body via	gluteal nerve	limb
		crural fascia
		Calcaneal
		tuberosity
Semi-	Ischiatic	Distal medial lip	Sciatic nerve	Extends hip
membranosus	tuberosity	of caudal rough		Femoral
(Hip extensor		surface of femur		attachment
and stifle flexor)		Proximal medial		extends stifle
(222, 227, 228)		surface of tibia		Tibial
		(medial tibial		attachment
		condyle)		flexes or
				extends
				stifle depending
				on position of
				limb
Semi-	Ischiatic	Distocranial	Sciatic nerve	Extends hip
tendinosus	tuberosity	border of tibia		Flexes stifle
(Hip and hock		Medial surface,		Extends hock
extensor		body of tibia
Stifle flexor)		The tuber
(222, 227–229)		calcanei by
		means of the
		crural fascia

208 Appendix

Medial thigh muscles

Muscle	Origin	Insertion	Innervation	Action
Sartorius	Cranial part –	Cranial part –	Femoral nerve	Flexes the hip
(Hip flexor)	iliac crest and	patella		Cranial part –
(226, 227, 229)	thoracolumbar	Caudal part –		extends stifle
	fascia	cranial border		Caudal part –
	Caudal part –	of tibia		flexes stifle
	cranioventral
	iliac spine and
	adjacent ventral
	border of ilium
Gracilis	Pelvic symphysis	Cranial border	Obturator nerve	Adducts pelvic
(Limb adductor)	by means of	of tibia (and with		limb
(226, 229)	symphysial	the		Flexes stifle
	tendon	semitendinosis),		Extends hip
		the tuber		and hock
		calcanei
Pectineus	Iliopubic	Medial lip,	Obturator nerve	Adducts pelvic
(Limb adductor	eminence	caudal rough		limb
and hip flexor)		surface (facies		Flexes hip
(226, 228, 229)		aspera) of femur
Adductor	Entire pelvic	Entire lateral lip	Obturator nerve	Adducts pelvic
(Limb adductor	symphysis	of caudal facies		limb
and hip	by means of the	aspera (rough		Extends hip
extensor)	symphysial	face of femur)
(228, 229)	tendon, the
	adjacent part of
	the ischiatic
	arch, and
	ventral surface
	of the pubis and
	ischium

Appendix 209

Lateral thigh muscles

Muscle	Origin	Insertion	Innervation	Action
Tensor fascia	Tuber coxae and	Cranial	Cranial gluteal	Flexes hip
latae	adjacent part of	superficial part –	nerve	Extends stifle
(Hip flexor and	ilium	patella and tibial		Tensor of the
stifle extensor)	Aponeurosis of	tuberosity by		fascia lata
(222)	middle gluteal	means of the		Draws limb
	muscle	fascia lata and		forward in
		patella ligament		cranial
		Caudal deeper		movement of
		part – lateral lip		the stride
		of facies aspera
		of the femur
Superficial	Lateral border of	Third trochanter	Caudal gluteal	Extends hip
gluteal	sacrum and first	of femur	nerve	Abducts pelvic
(Hip extensor	caudal vertebra,			limb
and limb ab-	partly by means
ductor)	of the
(222, 224)	sacrotuberous
	ligament
	Cranial dorsal
	iliac spine by
	way of gluteal
	fascia
Middle gluteal	Crest and	Greater	Cranial gluteal	Extends and
(Hip extensor	gluteal surface	trochanter of	nerve	abduct hip
and abductor)	of ilium	femur		Rotates pelvic
(222, 224)				limb medially
				Aids
				stabilization
				within
				coxofemoral
				joint
Deep gluteal	Body of ilium	Cranial aspect	Cranial gluteal	Extends and
(Hind limb ex-	and sciatic spine	of greater	nerve	abducts pelvic
tensor and ab-		trochanter		limb
ductor)				Rotates pelvic
(224)				limb medially

210 Appendix

Sublumbar muscles

Muscle	Origin	Insertion	Innervation	Action
Iliopsoas	Psoas major –	Psoas major –	Ventral branches	Flexes hip
(Hip flexor)	transverse	lesser	of lumbar	Flexes vertebral
(223, 225)	processes of	trochanter, with	spinal nn.	column
	lumbar	iliacus		Extends lumbar
	vertebrae	Iliacus – lesser		spine
	Iliacus – ventral	trochanter with		When pelvic
	surface of ilium	iliacus		limb is
				extended,
				draws limb
				forward
				Supinates hip
				When limb
				fixed, stabilizes
				vertebral
				column
				Flexes hip
Quadratus	Last three	Transverse	Ventral branches	Lateral flexion
lumborum	thoracic and	processes of the	of the lumbar	and fixation of
(Lateral flexor	lumbar	cranial lumbar	spinal nn.	the lumbar
of the	transverse	vertebrae and		vertebral
vertebrae)	processes	auricular surface		column
		of the pelvis
Femoral muscles
Quadriceps	Rectus femoris	All four bellies	Femoral nerve	Extends stifle
femoris	– ilium	of the		Flexes hip
(Major stifle	Vasti muscles:	quadriceps		(rectus femoris
extensor)	Vastus lateralis	femoris form		only)
(227, 228, 229)	– lateral side	one common
	and proximal	tendon of
	end of femur	insertion which
	Vastus	extends distally
	intermedius –	to invest the
	lateral side and	patella and
	proximal end of	insert on the
	femur	tibial tuberosity
	Vastus medialis
	– medial side,
	proximal end,
	and cranial
	surface of
	femur

Appendix 211

Deep muscles of the coxofemoral joint

Muscle	Origin	Insertion	Innervation	Action
Internal	Symphysis of the	Trochanteric	Sciatic nerve	Rotates the
obturator	pelvis and dorsal	fossa of the		pelvic limb
	surface of the	femur		laterally at
	ischium and			coxofemoral
	pubis			joint
Gemelli	Lateral surface	Trochanteric	Sciatic nerve	Rotates the
	of the ischium	fossa		pelvic limb
	caudal to the			laterally at
	acetabulum			coxofemoral
				joint
Quadratus	Ventral surface	Trochanteric	Sciatic nerve	Rotates the
femoris	of the caudal	fossa		pelvic limb and
	part of the			extends the hip
	ischium
External	Ventral surface	Trochanteric	Obturator nerve	Rotates hip
obturator	of the pubis and	fossa		laterally
	ischium
Articularis	Lunate surface	Proximal and		Flexes the hip
coxae	of acetabulum	medial to the
		line of vastus
		lateralis

212 Appendix

Masseter

cleidocephalicus

Trapezius

Sternocephalicus

Omo-transversarius

Cleidobrachialis

Deltoideus

Triceps brachii

Latissimus dorsi

204 Muscles of the thoracic limb.

Rhomboideus

Cleidobrachialis

205 Rhomboideus.

206 Cleidobrachialis.

Appendix 213

Capitis

Omo-transversarius

Cervicis

Thoracis

207 Omo-transversarius.

208 Rhomboideus.

Serratus
ventralis
cervicis
	Cervical
	Origin
Serratus ventralis	Thoracic
thoracis
209 Serratus ventralis.	210 Trapezius.

214 Appendix

Brachialis

211 Trapezius

Brachialis	Biceps
(sharing	brachii
same
insertion
as biceps
brachii
212 Biceps brachii (sharing
same insertion as biceps brachii

Coracobrachialis

213 Coracobrachialis

Long head

	Accessory
Lateral	head
head	Medial
	head

214 Triceps brachii

Latissimus dorsi (insertion)

215 Latissimus dorsi (insertion).

	Appendix	215
Supraspinatus
Infraspinatus	Spinous head
	Acromial head
216 Supraspinatus, Infraspinatus.	217 Deltoideus.
	Descending
Insertion	portion
	Transverse
	portion
	Deep pectoral
Origin	muscle

218 Pectoral group.

Supraspinatus	Rhomboideus		Serratus ventralis
			Carocobrachialis
Infraspinatus	Serratus	Latissimus	Supraspinatus
	ventralis	dorsi
	Triceps
Brachialis	brachii	Triceps
	Biceps
Biceps brachii	brachii	brachii	Biceps brachii
	Lateral		Medial

219 Muscles of the thoracic limb.

216 Appendix

Splenius
Spinal and
semispinal	Longissmus
muscles	thoracis et
Longissmus	lumborum
capitis
Longissmus
cervis

Thoracic iliocostal

Lumbar iliocostal

220 Epaxial muscles.

			Multifidus				Short rotator
Semispinalis					Long rotator			Spinalis	Interspinalis
T6	7	8	9 10 11 12	13	L1	2	3	4	5
										6
											7

Ilium

	Iliocostalis thoracis	Intertransversarius Longissimus lumborum
	Iliocostalis lumborum	Longissimus lumborum
		Transversospinalis system
		Longissimus system
		Iliocostalis system

221 Epaxial muscles.

Appendix 217

	Midde gluteal
	Superficial		Psoas major
Cut edge	gluteal
	Semimembranosus
of gluteal	Semitendinosus
fascia
Tensor	Biceps
fascia	femoris
latae
Sartorius
			Illiacus

222 Muscles of the pelvic limb.

Middle gluteal

Deep gluteal

Superficial gluteal

224 Gluteal muscles.

223 Sublumber muscles.

Iliopsoas

225 Iliopsoas.

	Pectineus			Deep gluteal
Cranial
part of			Sartorius	Rectus
sartorius				femoris
			Vastus	Adductor
Cranial			lateralis	Semitendinosus
part of	Gracilis
sartorius
			Semimembranosus

226 Medial thigh muscles.

227 Femoral muscles.

218 Appendix

Rectus femoris

Pectineus

Adductor

Semimembranosus

Semitendinosus

228 Muscles of the pelvic limb.

Pectineus

	Rectus femoris
Adductor	Vastus medialis
Gracilis	Sartorius (cranial part)
	Sartorius (caudal part)
	Semimembranosus
Semitendinosus

229 Muscles of the pelvic limb.